This is an interactive lecture which includes links to internet sources, videos, and polls. This lecture on the research design contains copyrighted material under the educational fair use exemption to the U.S. copyright law.
Caption: “The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment is one of the most famous examples of unethical research. The study, funded by the federal government from 1932-1972, looked at the effects of untreated syphilis. In order to do this, a number of Black men in Alabama who had syphilis were misinformed about their illness…[some were told] the government was offering special free treatments for the condition. The ‘special free treatment’ was, in fact, nothing of the sort. The researchers conducted various examinations, including spinal taps, not to treat syphilis but just to see what its effects were…By the 1950s it was well established that a shot of penicillin would fully cure early-stage syphilis. Not only were the men not offered this life-saving treatment, the researchers conspired to be sure they didn’t find out about it, getting local doctors to agree that if any of the study subjects came in they wouldn’t tell them they had syphilis or that a cure was available” (Source: Society Pages).
Now that you’re familiar with the sociological perspective and the sociological theories that guide sociologists in their study of group behaviors and societies, the next piece of studying sociology is to understand in more detail the scientific method. As we discussed earlier, science is about researchers making observations and looking for measurable patterns. But how exactly does this happen?
Scientists around the globe follow a research design (also known as a research model or the scientific method) made up of steps similar to you following a recipe in a cookbook. The research design allows scientists around the world to communicate regardless of discipline or culture. All scientists have an ethical obligation to make their research findings public. Imagine if a scientist found a cure to cancer but withheld the information? How do you think people would react to this when they found out? Would you be angry?
Scientists make their research findings public in several ways; primarily through publishing research studies in peer reviewed, scientific journals and presenting at academic conferences. Researchers can also publish academic books and online. These efforts give other scientists access to the latest data to guide them in their own scientific studies. Scientific knowledge is continually shaped by scientists contributing to and building on the findings of other researchers.
Scientists around the globe follow a research design (also known as a research model or the scientific method) made up of steps similar to you following a recipe in a cookbook. The research design allows scientists around the world to communicate regardless of discipline or culture. All scientists have an ethical obligation to make their research findings public. Imagine if a scientist found a cure to cancer but withheld the information? How do you think people would react to this when they found out? Would you be angry?
Scientists make their research findings public in several ways; primarily through publishing research studies in peer reviewed, scientific journals and presenting at academic conferences. Researchers can also publish academic books and online. These efforts give other scientists access to the latest data to guide them in their own scientific studies. Scientific knowledge is continually shaped by scientists contributing to and building on the findings of other researchers.
Your Turn: Think about how scientific research has shaped what you know about various medical issues. Has knowledge about this issue remained the same or has scientific knowledge shaped your thinking and maybe even your lifestyle behaviors?
Scientific research studies that will be made public and involve direct contact with human or animal subjects must be pre-approved by an Institutional Review Board, referred to as IRBs. IRBs give permission to scientists to conduct studies. Their main responsibility is to ensure that the research proposals submitted to the IRB are ethical. Oganizations such as colleges and universities, corporations, and government agencies that have researchers on staff must have established IRB committees or processes.
The requirement for ethical research is global and was the result of the Nuremberg court trials of Nazi officials after World War II that made public the experimental abuses made by Nazi doctors. The Nuremberg Code of Research Ethics governs ethical research. Unethical research was also common in the United States and often involved the use of prisoners, mentally ill and other disadvantaged populations. One of the most infamous unethical research studies in the United States was the long term Tuskegee Syphilis Study that involved black males with syphilis. Once treatment became available, rather than end the study, treatment was withheld and this led to the deaths of both the research subjects and their partners who contracted syphilis. During the 1970’s, the Belmont Report resulted in laws establishing the IRBs which govern ethical research studies in the U.S.
When scientists submit their research proposals to an IRB, the committee must weigh the following ethical risks to the subjects of the study versus perceived benefits to society.
When scientists submit their research proposals to an IRB, the committee must weigh the following ethical risks to the subjects of the study versus perceived benefits to society.
Voluntary Participation
Researchers cannot force human subjects to participate in studies. Often research participants must be able to read, understand, and sign an Informed Consent form which explains the details of the study and any possible risks to the participant. Legal guardians sign Informed Consent forms for minors.
Confidentiality of Personal Information
Researchers must guard personal information that can be used to identify the identities of research participants from public access. Often this involves researchers storing data in secure locations while conducting the study and destroying field notes or data after the research study is complete. Researchers do not have the same legal protections as attorney-client relationships and can be held in contempt of court if they do not abide by judges’ orders to release data, for example to law enforcement authorities.
Your Turn: why do you think most researchers would risk going to jail rather than turn over the personal information and identities of their research participants? How do public opinions of scientists effect the collection of data and scientific research in general?
Do No Harm
If there is any risk of mental, emotional, or physical harm to the human or animal research subjects, the IRB committee members must decide how much harm is permissible in relation to how beneficial the findings might be to the public. This is why clinical trials (experiments) are often completed in phases first for example starting with mice followed by rabbits, chimpanzees and finally a select few humans. If there is a risk of harm to human subjects, the Informed Consent must detail options available for treatment such as free access to mental health counseling.
Check This Out: Read this article about Facebook accused of conducting unethical research on it users.
Deception
It is unethical to mislead research participants about the details of a study but sometimes deceit is necessary. Deception is most likely to occur in experiments with the subjects being misled on purpose in order to observe certain behaviors or effects. Again, rather than the researcher deciding how much deception is acceptable, the IRB makes this determination by weighing the risk of harm to research subjects versus beneficial outcomes to society. Once the data has been collected, the IRB might require the researcher to debrief the participants about the deception.
Researchers cannot force human subjects to participate in studies. Often research participants must be able to read, understand, and sign an Informed Consent form which explains the details of the study and any possible risks to the participant. Legal guardians sign Informed Consent forms for minors.
Confidentiality of Personal Information
Researchers must guard personal information that can be used to identify the identities of research participants from public access. Often this involves researchers storing data in secure locations while conducting the study and destroying field notes or data after the research study is complete. Researchers do not have the same legal protections as attorney-client relationships and can be held in contempt of court if they do not abide by judges’ orders to release data, for example to law enforcement authorities.
Your Turn: why do you think most researchers would risk going to jail rather than turn over the personal information and identities of their research participants? How do public opinions of scientists effect the collection of data and scientific research in general?
Do No Harm
If there is any risk of mental, emotional, or physical harm to the human or animal research subjects, the IRB committee members must decide how much harm is permissible in relation to how beneficial the findings might be to the public. This is why clinical trials (experiments) are often completed in phases first for example starting with mice followed by rabbits, chimpanzees and finally a select few humans. If there is a risk of harm to human subjects, the Informed Consent must detail options available for treatment such as free access to mental health counseling.
Check This Out: Read this article about Facebook accused of conducting unethical research on it users.
Deception
It is unethical to mislead research participants about the details of a study but sometimes deceit is necessary. Deception is most likely to occur in experiments with the subjects being misled on purpose in order to observe certain behaviors or effects. Again, rather than the researcher deciding how much deception is acceptable, the IRB makes this determination by weighing the risk of harm to research subjects versus beneficial outcomes to society. Once the data has been collected, the IRB might require the researcher to debrief the participants about the deception.
Research studies which do not involve direct contact with humans or animals, do not require IRB approval however all researchers must still follow ethical standards related to honesty, confidentiality, and the sharing of their findings with other researchers and the public. The American Sociological Association has its own Code of Ethics.
Your Turn: Look over this Application for Human Subjects in Research IRB application.
View the two videos regarding unethical research practices.
Your Turn: Look over this Application for Human Subjects in Research IRB application.
View the two videos regarding unethical research practices.
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Check This Out: Read this expose titled “The Best-Selling, Billion-Dollar Pills Tested on Homeless People: How the destitute and the mentally ill are being used as human lab rats.” Check This Out: Read this article titled "Coca-Cola Funds Scientists Who Shift Blame for Obesity from Bad Diets" |
It’s Your Turn: Most sociology textbooks include the classic Tearoom Trade research study as an example of possible ethical violations. Watch the video below and put yourself in the shoes of Laud Humphreys. What would you do? Is the Tearoom Trade study unethical?
When researchers submit research studies to peer reviewed scientific journals, the editorial board prior to publishing the paper will review the research design. Some scientific journals also require researchers to discuss any ethical issues and sources of financial funding. This is why most published scientific studies are long, typically ranging anywhere from 10-25 pages or longer and only found in scientific journals rather than mass media publications such as magazines or newspapers.
Watch this video for an explanation of the general steps that make up the research design or research model and then read the examples of each step.
Watch this video for an explanation of the general steps that make up the research design or research model and then read the examples of each step.
It’s Your Turn: Download this research study on college student cell phone use and GPAs. Find the above steps within the research paper.
The following is an explanation of each of the steps of the research model and where to find each step in a research paper published in a peer review scientific journal. Download the paper to follow along with each step. You will find that most of these steps in the design of research studies are embedded in the definition of the scientific method: “principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses” (Merriam-Webster).
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Step One Choose Topic
Most researchers whether employed at a university, government agency or a corporation will spend the majority of their careers studying one topic or issue. Usually they will choose topics while in graduate school based on their own interests, and importance to society. University professors are expected to spend a significant amount of time on their research. Some of the profits from athletic programs are used to fund research studies. When university professors get hired part of the hiring decision is based on their research and whether they can bring funding sources such as grants to fund their research. Professors at community colleges are not expected to do research but instead devote time to students and the college community.
Where to Find Step One in a Research Paper
The title of the research study will include one or more keywords indicating the topic of the study.
Most researchers whether employed at a university, government agency or a corporation will spend the majority of their careers studying one topic or issue. Usually they will choose topics while in graduate school based on their own interests, and importance to society. University professors are expected to spend a significant amount of time on their research. Some of the profits from athletic programs are used to fund research studies. When university professors get hired part of the hiring decision is based on their research and whether they can bring funding sources such as grants to fund their research. Professors at community colleges are not expected to do research but instead devote time to students and the college community.
Where to Find Step One in a Research Paper
The title of the research study will include one or more keywords indicating the topic of the study.
Step Two Define Topic or Problem
The researcher must precisely define the topic of study. For example let’s say the topic is love. If you asked all of your colleagues in class to define love you would get many different definitions. Some might define love as emotional comfort, feeling of trust, a chemical reaction in the brain, or sexual satisfaction among others. To make matters more complicated, some of your colleagues when defining love might be thinking about romantic partners, children, parents, or a higher power. It is therefore important for researchers to clearly define both their topic and if applicable, population of study. This is also referred to as the operationalization of variables. By defining the topic and population of study, the researcher is laying the groundwork for the hypothesis and the variables that will later make up the hypothesis.
Where to Find Step Two in a Research Paper
The definition of the topic/problem is found in the first couple of paragraphs of the study right after the abstract. An abstract is a short summary of the study.
The researcher must precisely define the topic of study. For example let’s say the topic is love. If you asked all of your colleagues in class to define love you would get many different definitions. Some might define love as emotional comfort, feeling of trust, a chemical reaction in the brain, or sexual satisfaction among others. To make matters more complicated, some of your colleagues when defining love might be thinking about romantic partners, children, parents, or a higher power. It is therefore important for researchers to clearly define both their topic and if applicable, population of study. This is also referred to as the operationalization of variables. By defining the topic and population of study, the researcher is laying the groundwork for the hypothesis and the variables that will later make up the hypothesis.
Where to Find Step Two in a Research Paper
The definition of the topic/problem is found in the first couple of paragraphs of the study right after the abstract. An abstract is a short summary of the study.
Step Three Literature Review
In the scientific community, the word literature only relates to scientific research studies published in peer reviewed scientific journals, academic books or presented at academic conferences, and written or presented by the researcher h/herself. It does not include summaries of research studies written by someone else such as journalists. The literature review section of the research paper is an overview of previous noteworthy studies related to the topic. The literature review allows the researcher to educate h/herself and the audience (other researchers and professionals) about the findings of other scientific studies for the purposes of expanding the scientific knowledge regarding the topic.
Where to Find Step Three in a Research Paper
The literature review begins with the first citation or footnote after the abstract, and ends with the last citation or footnote right before the Methodology, Research Design or Methods section. You will see other citations or footnotes throughout the entire research study, but the literature review ends with the last citation or footnote right before the Method section of the study. If you go to the Reference section at the end of the research study, you will find the full citations.
In the scientific community, the word literature only relates to scientific research studies published in peer reviewed scientific journals, academic books or presented at academic conferences, and written or presented by the researcher h/herself. It does not include summaries of research studies written by someone else such as journalists. The literature review section of the research paper is an overview of previous noteworthy studies related to the topic. The literature review allows the researcher to educate h/herself and the audience (other researchers and professionals) about the findings of other scientific studies for the purposes of expanding the scientific knowledge regarding the topic.
Where to Find Step Three in a Research Paper
The literature review begins with the first citation or footnote after the abstract, and ends with the last citation or footnote right before the Methodology, Research Design or Methods section. You will see other citations or footnotes throughout the entire research study, but the literature review ends with the last citation or footnote right before the Method section of the study. If you go to the Reference section at the end of the research study, you will find the full citations.
Step Four Hypothesis
As you probably remember from primary school, a hypothesis is not just any guess, it is an educated guess. Given that the previous step was the literature review which involved the researcher educating h/herself about the topic it should now make sense that the hypothesis is an educated guess.
The hypothesis is also a prediction made up of variables defined in step two (operationalization of variables) and guided by theory (for example functionalism, conflict, or symbolic interaction). The hypothesis includes independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s).
Independent variables cause the change in the hypothesis and dependent variables are effected by the change in the hypothesis.
Some research studies instead of a hypothesis will include research question(s).
As you probably remember from primary school, a hypothesis is not just any guess, it is an educated guess. Given that the previous step was the literature review which involved the researcher educating h/herself about the topic it should now make sense that the hypothesis is an educated guess.
The hypothesis is also a prediction made up of variables defined in step two (operationalization of variables) and guided by theory (for example functionalism, conflict, or symbolic interaction). The hypothesis includes independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s).
Independent variables cause the change in the hypothesis and dependent variables are effected by the change in the hypothesis.
Some research studies instead of a hypothesis will include research question(s).
Research studies can certainly have more than one hypothesis (hypotheses) and each hypothesis can have more than one independent and dependent variable. Remember that the independent and dependent variables are always found in the hypothesis itself. So prior to identifying the independent and dependent variables, you must first locate the hypothesis in the research paper.
It’s Your Turn: re-read the above last two hypotheses and decide which sociological theories each one resembles (functionalism, conflict, or symbolic interaction). Why?
Where to Find Step Four in the Research Paper
The hypothesis or research question can be found in the last few paragraphs right before the Methodology, Research Design, or Method section or within the Methods section itself. Look for sentences that give an indication of a prediction or inquiry. Some researchers will give hints such as: we examined, in this study, our hypothesis, or we predict. Go back to the title topic (keyword) (step 1) and the definition of the topic (step 2). These serve as hints and help you find the hypothesis or research question, located before the Method section.
The hypothesis or research question can be found in the last few paragraphs right before the Methodology, Research Design, or Method section or within the Methods section itself. Look for sentences that give an indication of a prediction or inquiry. Some researchers will give hints such as: we examined, in this study, our hypothesis, or we predict. Go back to the title topic (keyword) (step 1) and the definition of the topic (step 2). These serve as hints and help you find the hypothesis or research question, located before the Method section.
Step Five Choose a Research Method
The researcher specifies how h/she is going to collect the data to prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. There are different ways researchers can collect data and they’ll be covered in the next lecture. In sociology, the most popular research method is the survey method.
Where to Find Step Five in a Research Paper
The research method is found in the Methodology, Research Design, or Method section. The Method section often has different subsections.
The researcher specifies how h/she is going to collect the data to prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. There are different ways researchers can collect data and they’ll be covered in the next lecture. In sociology, the most popular research method is the survey method.
Where to Find Step Five in a Research Paper
The research method is found in the Methodology, Research Design, or Method section. The Method section often has different subsections.
Step Six Collect Data
The researcher explains how h/she went about collecting the data to prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. The Method section usually includes subsections because the researcher needs to include specific details regarding the collection of data so other researchers can replicate the study. In the Method section, the researcher attempts to answer as many of the following questions: who, what, where, when, how, and why. Who were the subjects or research participants and how many, where did the researcher find the participants, what did the researcher ask the participants to do, when and where did the study take place and why? Did the participants get any compensation, what was the age, sex, and ethnic make-up? How long did it take to collect the data?
Where to Find Step Six in the Research Paper
The Methodology, Research Design, or Method section has the data collection information. The entire Method section (with the subsections) ends right before the Results section.
The researcher explains how h/she went about collecting the data to prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. The Method section usually includes subsections because the researcher needs to include specific details regarding the collection of data so other researchers can replicate the study. In the Method section, the researcher attempts to answer as many of the following questions: who, what, where, when, how, and why. Who were the subjects or research participants and how many, where did the researcher find the participants, what did the researcher ask the participants to do, when and where did the study take place and why? Did the participants get any compensation, what was the age, sex, and ethnic make-up? How long did it take to collect the data?
Where to Find Step Six in the Research Paper
The Methodology, Research Design, or Method section has the data collection information. The entire Method section (with the subsections) ends right before the Results section.
Step Seven Analyze the Data
The researcher analyzes collected data to either prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. The data analysis allows the researcher to examine the variables and look for measurable patterns. There are two ways to analyze data: quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis.
Quantitative analysis involves using statistical analysis (numbers/math/statistics) to analyze the collected data, while qualitative analysis involves using the researcher’s own interpretations (narrative/words). Related to qualitative analysis, is phenomenology in which the researcher attempts to further understand and interpret the subjective experience of h/her research subjects. Most often than not, researchers will choose either quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis rather than both to analyze their data.
Where to Find Step Seven in the Research Paper
If the overall Results section feels like you’re looking at a math textbook and includes tables with numbers, the researcher is using quantitative analysis. If the overall Results section feels like you’re looking at an English textbook and includes narrative passages, the researcher is using qualitative analysis.
The researcher analyzes collected data to either prove the hypothesis or answer the research question. The data analysis allows the researcher to examine the variables and look for measurable patterns. There are two ways to analyze data: quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis.
Quantitative analysis involves using statistical analysis (numbers/math/statistics) to analyze the collected data, while qualitative analysis involves using the researcher’s own interpretations (narrative/words). Related to qualitative analysis, is phenomenology in which the researcher attempts to further understand and interpret the subjective experience of h/her research subjects. Most often than not, researchers will choose either quantitative analysis or qualitative analysis rather than both to analyze their data.
Where to Find Step Seven in the Research Paper
If the overall Results section feels like you’re looking at a math textbook and includes tables with numbers, the researcher is using quantitative analysis. If the overall Results section feels like you’re looking at an English textbook and includes narrative passages, the researcher is using qualitative analysis.
This is what a quantitative analysis Results section looks like:
Step Eight Share Findings
The researcher writes a detailed overview of the study and explains whether the hypothesis was proven or answers the research question. The researcher compares the study’s findings to previous findings cited in the literature review and discusses strengths and weaknesses of the study. This allows other researchers to modify their hypotheses and collection of data. This is how scientific knowledge progresses. Researchers communicate by reading each other’s research papers and make modifications to their own research studies. Depending on the topic, the researcher might also give advice on how the findings of the research study can benefit the public.
Where to Find Step Eight in the Research Paper
The detailed overview of the entire research study is found in the section titled either Discussion, Conclusion, or Implications.
The researcher writes a detailed overview of the study and explains whether the hypothesis was proven or answers the research question. The researcher compares the study’s findings to previous findings cited in the literature review and discusses strengths and weaknesses of the study. This allows other researchers to modify their hypotheses and collection of data. This is how scientific knowledge progresses. Researchers communicate by reading each other’s research papers and make modifications to their own research studies. Depending on the topic, the researcher might also give advice on how the findings of the research study can benefit the public.
Where to Find Step Eight in the Research Paper
The detailed overview of the entire research study is found in the section titled either Discussion, Conclusion, or Implications.
The References section includes full citations for all of the short citations made throughout the research paper including the Literature Review section. Readers can look up the sources cited.
It’s Your Turn: Download the research paper titled “Cell Phoning and Texting While Driving: Multitasking Ourselves to Death” to practice identifying the research steps. This research paper includes an example of qualitative analysis in the Results section.
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Scientific knowledge is a team effort. Rather than individual scientists making grand scientific findings, scientists over the course of their careers publish many research studies, each adding just a little bit of new knowledge and over time, we gain an understanding of issues and topics.
Discussions constantly take place within the scientific community that revolve around two important key terms in science: validity and reliability.
Watch these two videos on validity and reliability and then read the examples below.
Discussions constantly take place within the scientific community that revolve around two important key terms in science: validity and reliability.
Watch these two videos on validity and reliability and then read the examples below.
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Questions regarding validity include: are you measuring what you think you’re measuring? How true are your findings? How accurate are your definitions of your variables?
A researcher is studying drug abuse among teens. His hypothesis is that peer pressure is more likely to contribute to drug use among teens.
Your Turn: What is the independent variable (cause) and what is the dependent variable (effect)?
The researcher uses a survey method and has 300 teens fill out a questionnaire about their drug use. He asks teens ages 13-17 if they ever used drugs illicitly and of those that answer yes, one of the questions asks about their initial drug experience. Quantitative analysis of the data reveals 65% of the teens reported that a friend first gave them the illicit drugs. The researcher concludes there is a measurable pattern that indicates peer pressure might contribute to drug use among 13-17 year olds. He attends a sociological conference and after he makes his presentation, other sociologists begin to question the validity of his findings. Are you sure that peer pressure is more likely to contribute to drug use among teens or could there other variables responsible for drug use among teens? Validity – are you measuring what you think you’re measuring (peer pressure) or is there something else that’s going but you’re just not using the appropriate research method or asking the appropriate questions (survey)?
Validity does not imply there is anything wrong with the researcher's research conclusions. It just means that we’re critical thinkers and we do not rely on just one study for our knowledge about teens and drug use. Remember this: there is no perfect research study. Every research study is going to have some validity issues.
Your Turn: What reasons besides peer pressure might contribute to drug use?
A teen might be going through a rough time because his parents are getting a divorce. He shares his troubles with his best friend who offers him a marijuana joint and says: try this, this will make you feel better. The researcher concludes this interaction as peer pressure but is this really peer pressure – are we measuring what we think we’re measuring or could it be family dysfunction, depression, or something else and because there were no follow up questions in the survey, the researcher interpreted these findings as peer pressure.
Another sociologist at the conference shares that her survey on drug use among teens indicated that rebellion is more like to contribute to drug use. So which variable is it, peer pressure or rebellion? This is where reliability comes in. The simple definition of reliability means how consistent are the research findings? Could it be that the survey research method is not a reliable measure of this topic and the variables? Did both researchers use the same definitions of the variables? Remember what we said earlier about the definition of love? Since both researchers are getting different findings we cannot definitely know the answers to drug use among teens.
In social science, to resolve issues of validity and reliability, different researchers over a period of time, studying the topic and variables, will at some point start to reach similar or consistent findings and conclusions about drug use among teens. We can never rely on just one or a few research studies for our scientific knowledge. It might surprise you that to this day, physicists are still debating Einstein’s theory of relativity!
Your Turn: How do you know nicotine use results in negative health outcomes? How long did it take for scientists to come to this conclusion?
Does this ever happen to you? You hear that a new study found that drinking red wine in moderation among women is good for the heart. You run to the store and buy a case of red wine to share with all the women in your life. A few months later, you hear that another study found drinking red wine even in moderation might contribute to breast cancer among women. Now you’re really confused. What to do? Chances are both studies have validity and reliability issues. The mass media interested in ratings, limited by airtime and print space constraints may not provide details, resulting in confusion among people who are dependent on the mass media as the only source of their information. But as a college student, you now know that you can look up the actual research papers pertaining to the studies covered in the media and reach your own conclusions.
Take climate change. After many years and research studies, scientists today generally agree that climate change is real. However there is disagreement about the cause of climate change. Is climate change related to the human carbon footprint, a natural climate cycle, or both? It will take more studies by different researchers around the globe to make the final determination.
Your Turn: Imagine you're a researcher. What topic would you study and using the steps of the research model, how would you set up your research study? Would you need to go to the IRB committee for permission?
A researcher is studying drug abuse among teens. His hypothesis is that peer pressure is more likely to contribute to drug use among teens.
Your Turn: What is the independent variable (cause) and what is the dependent variable (effect)?
The researcher uses a survey method and has 300 teens fill out a questionnaire about their drug use. He asks teens ages 13-17 if they ever used drugs illicitly and of those that answer yes, one of the questions asks about their initial drug experience. Quantitative analysis of the data reveals 65% of the teens reported that a friend first gave them the illicit drugs. The researcher concludes there is a measurable pattern that indicates peer pressure might contribute to drug use among 13-17 year olds. He attends a sociological conference and after he makes his presentation, other sociologists begin to question the validity of his findings. Are you sure that peer pressure is more likely to contribute to drug use among teens or could there other variables responsible for drug use among teens? Validity – are you measuring what you think you’re measuring (peer pressure) or is there something else that’s going but you’re just not using the appropriate research method or asking the appropriate questions (survey)?
Validity does not imply there is anything wrong with the researcher's research conclusions. It just means that we’re critical thinkers and we do not rely on just one study for our knowledge about teens and drug use. Remember this: there is no perfect research study. Every research study is going to have some validity issues.
Your Turn: What reasons besides peer pressure might contribute to drug use?
A teen might be going through a rough time because his parents are getting a divorce. He shares his troubles with his best friend who offers him a marijuana joint and says: try this, this will make you feel better. The researcher concludes this interaction as peer pressure but is this really peer pressure – are we measuring what we think we’re measuring or could it be family dysfunction, depression, or something else and because there were no follow up questions in the survey, the researcher interpreted these findings as peer pressure.
Another sociologist at the conference shares that her survey on drug use among teens indicated that rebellion is more like to contribute to drug use. So which variable is it, peer pressure or rebellion? This is where reliability comes in. The simple definition of reliability means how consistent are the research findings? Could it be that the survey research method is not a reliable measure of this topic and the variables? Did both researchers use the same definitions of the variables? Remember what we said earlier about the definition of love? Since both researchers are getting different findings we cannot definitely know the answers to drug use among teens.
In social science, to resolve issues of validity and reliability, different researchers over a period of time, studying the topic and variables, will at some point start to reach similar or consistent findings and conclusions about drug use among teens. We can never rely on just one or a few research studies for our scientific knowledge. It might surprise you that to this day, physicists are still debating Einstein’s theory of relativity!
Your Turn: How do you know nicotine use results in negative health outcomes? How long did it take for scientists to come to this conclusion?
Does this ever happen to you? You hear that a new study found that drinking red wine in moderation among women is good for the heart. You run to the store and buy a case of red wine to share with all the women in your life. A few months later, you hear that another study found drinking red wine even in moderation might contribute to breast cancer among women. Now you’re really confused. What to do? Chances are both studies have validity and reliability issues. The mass media interested in ratings, limited by airtime and print space constraints may not provide details, resulting in confusion among people who are dependent on the mass media as the only source of their information. But as a college student, you now know that you can look up the actual research papers pertaining to the studies covered in the media and reach your own conclusions.
Take climate change. After many years and research studies, scientists today generally agree that climate change is real. However there is disagreement about the cause of climate change. Is climate change related to the human carbon footprint, a natural climate cycle, or both? It will take more studies by different researchers around the globe to make the final determination.
Your Turn: Imagine you're a researcher. What topic would you study and using the steps of the research model, how would you set up your research study? Would you need to go to the IRB committee for permission?
Check This Out: How Science Goes Wrong - Problems with Scientific Research
In sociology, there are different variations of the research design depending on the sociologist’s theoretical orientation. The main ideas of functionalism, conflict, and symbolic interactionism effect not only the research topic but how the research study is designed.
Functionalists are more likely to follow the positivist approach to social research.
Functionalists are more likely to follow the positivist approach to social research.
Conflict
sociologists are more likely to follow the critical
approach to social research.
Symbolic
interactionists are more likely to follow the interpretive or antipositivist
approach to social research.
Quiz Yourself: Complete this self-assessment related to the information in this lecture.
View Videos and Additional Resources: Research Design
Next Unit: Research Methods
View Videos and Additional Resources: Research Design
Next Unit: Research Methods